Early History of The Origins of Love & Violence
James W. Prescott, born in the depression years, was orphaned as a boy with his three brothers. These years of separation from his mother and family left their lasting impression and provided the insight and drive to his life's work. When he joined the newly formed National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), NIH he formed the Developmental Behavioral Biology Program and became its Health Scientist Administrator from 1966-1980. A major focus of this NICHD research program was to understand why depression and violence results from maternal-infant/child separations. Caspar Weinberger, then Secretary of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (renamed the Department of Health and Human Services-DHHS), directed the NICHD to expand its studies to uncover the origins of child abuse and neglect and of violence in the home. Dr. Prescott's seventeen-year federal career was terminated for supporting DHEW Secretary Caspar Weinberger's Directive to the NICHD and for opposing the NICHD's abandonment of its agency responsibility for supporting child abuse and neglect research programs. 
See: http://www.violence.de/history/coverup.html

As a developmental neuropsychologist and cross-cultural psychologist, Dr. Prescott focused the NICHD program efforts on developing research programs to understand how loss of early maternal-infant bonding-- as sensory deprivation of somatic maternal love and nurturing-- affects the developing primate brain that accounts for the pathologies of depression and violence that results from such early maternal separations. 
See http://www.violence.de

Sarah Hardy in Mother Nature (1999) observed that "no wild monkey or ape mother has ever been observed to deliberately harm her own baby". Why does the human primate harm its own offspring when no genes can be identified to account for this harm nor for the current epidemics of violence that have grown over this past generation which precludes any changes in the human gene pool to account for this difference (Prescott, 2001 ab).

The answer to this question is to be found in the betrayal of millions of years of mammalian evolutionary biology by the human primate. This betrayal has two significant components:

a) how human infants/children are not nurtured which equates with the lack of affectional somatic bonding in the mother-infant/child relationship; and

b) suppression of the normal development of sexual affectional bonds during the post puberty years that exists for all mammals except for the human mammal.

It will be shown that it is the impaired development of the pleasure systems of the brain that results from failed affectional bonding in the mother-infant/child relationship and in the failed sexual affectional bonding during the juvenile/adolescent stages of development, which have placed the human primate on a life path for depression, social alienation and violence. Tragically, the moral traditions of the monotheistic religions have contributed significantly to this life path of self-destruction in homo sapiens where pain and suffering (biological avoidance) has become a virtue; and pleasure (biological attraction) has become a sin that must be avoided. This moral theology has wrecked havoc with the natural and normal integrative bio-psychological development of homo sapiens, which has resulted in the development of the neurodissociative brain that mediates the neurodissociative behaviors of depression, alienation and violence.

The basic reciprocal inhibitory relationship in the brain between pain and pleasure, between peace and violence must be recognized as fundamental neurobiological and neuropsychological processes that have been developed through millions of years of mammalian evolutionary biology that regulate peaceful and violent behaviors.

Evolutionary Mammalian Biology Betrayed
No mammal on this planet, except the human mammal, separates the newborn from its mother at birth and during the crucial and formative postnatal period of brain-behavioral development. No mammal on this planet, except the human mammal, refuses to breastfeed its newborn and during the crucial and formative periods of breastfeeding for brain-behavioral development that varies with mammalian species. The violation of these two mammalian universals by the human primate-homo sapiens-has brought devastating consequences upon itself in terms of damaged biological and emotional-social health that threatens the very existence of the species.

It is worth noting that the bonobo chimpanzee, which is the most peaceful primate on the planet, breastfeed their young to about four years of age; the mother carries her offspring on her body through early adolescence (particularly male offspring); and where multiple male/female sexual relationships are commonplace which are characterized by the lack of aggression or violence (Diamond, 1992; De Waal and Lanting, 1997, Prescott, 2001).

Newman (1995) has summarized the essential role of breastfeeding for healthy human development where WHO/UNICEF (1990) have recommended breastfeeding for "two years of age or beyond" that, inexplicably, is not supported by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 1997). Laudenslager, et al. (1982) have documented impaired immune system development from mother-infant separations (includes lack of breastfeeding). We shall see that breastfeeding of the human primate for 2.5 years or greater is essential to optimize the health benefits (biological and psychosocial) of breastfeeding for child and mother.

Bowlby/Montagu and Attachment v Watson/Holt and non-Attachment.
There is a long history of warnings from child and human development authorities on the dangers inherent in separating infants from their mothers. Bowlby (1950), in a report on Maternal Care and Mental Health and in Child Care and the Growth of Love (1951) to the World Health Organization (WHO) warned the world of the consequences of increasing mother-infant/child separations associated with institutional child day care:

"Deprived children, whether in their own homes or out of them, are the source of social infection as real and serious as are the carriers of diphtheria and typhoid."

"The break-up of families and the shunting of illegitimates are accepted without comment."

"One must beware of a vested interest in the institutional care of children."

Renee Spitz (1946/1965) documented that infants isolated in cribs with little or no physical contact and physical affection can die from an emotional wasting away, which he called marasmus, even though medical and physical care were normal. Montagu (1971) has provided a history of two national historical sources that have opposed bonding in the mother-infant/child relationship and which established wrongful child rearing practices in America for this past century and which continues to this day.

Watson (1928) in his book Psychological Care of Infant and Child stated: "…a sensible way of treating children…Never hug and kiss them, never let them sit on your lap. If you must, kiss them once on the forehead when they say good night."

Luther Emmett Holt (1894), the leading pediatric authority of his day, stated in his textbook: "To induce sleep, rocking and all other habits of this sort are useless and may be harmful"; and later in 1916 advised that the crib should not rock in order that "the unnecessary and vicious practice may not be carried on". Holt could not have been in greater error, as we now know that gentle rocking (movement) of the infant/child is essential for normal brain-behavioral development and bonding. See http://www.violence.de/tv/rockabye.html, which was premiered at the 1970 White House Conference on Children.

Liedloff (1975) has documented the importance of baby carrying and affectional bonding between mother and infant/child in her single culture study. Joseph Chilton Pearce reinforced the significance of bonding in Magical Child (1977):

"Bonding is the issue, regardless of age. Bonding is a psychological-biological state, a vital physical link that coordinates and unifies the entire biological system. Bonding seals a primary knowing that is the basis for rational thought."

Cook (1996) has provided a review of how infants and nations are placed at risk with early child institutional care that ensures lack of bonding. For over a century we have been given wrongful and disastrous advice by "authorities" in pediatrics and psychology that continues to this day. Ferber (1985), a pediatrician, states:

"If your child is like this, you may be comforted to know that headbanging, body rocking, and head rolling are very common in early childhood and, at least at this age, are usually normal. If your child exhibits any of these behaviors there is little need for concern about emotional difficulties or neurological illness" p.193; and "In the infant and young toddler, rhythmic patterns are of little significance and you will not need to intervene" (p.197).

Dr. Ferber could not be in greater error and his statements indicate that it is imperative that all pediatricians be required to view the Time Life documentary, "Rock a Bye Baby" and the other video documentaries which document the inherent pathology of body rocking and other stereotypical behaviors consequent to the sensory deprivation of mother love (SSAD). These video documentaries are available here.

Spock (1972), and Ferber (1985) have advocated letting the infant/child engage in pathological chronic crying, e.g., crying itself to sleep, that has pathological consequences of extreme adreno-cortical stress reactions that adversely affect brain-behavioral development (Selye, 1956; Prescott, 2001). Another commentary by Dr. Ferber is so egregious that it also deserves reporting:

"A normal child will not injure himself seriously while headbanging, although he occasionally may bruise his forehead and, very rarely, there may be a small amount of bleeding. Concussions, fractured skull, or brain injuries just do not occur. The main damage is to furniture and walls" (p.198).

It is beyond comprehension to understand how forces so great that damages furniture and walls do not damage the immature developing brain. Microlesions of the brain that cannot be detected today can have long term developmental brain consequences years later, as the studies of Faro and Windle (1969) have demonstrated on the effects of birth asphyxia upon the developing brain.

The award-winning Time-Life documentary, Rock a Bye Baby, that was premiered at the 1970 White House Conference on Children, dramatizes NICHD supported research findings of impaired brain-behavioral development with mother-infant separations and the necessity of body movement and rocking of the newborn/infant for normal brain-behavioral development. The classic studies by Mason (1968) and Mason and Berkson (1975), which demonstrated that artificial movement by a swinging mother surrogate could prevent depression and violence in the separated infant, is required viewing by all who have an interest in optimizing healthy development of the newborn/infant/child and can be viewed at:
  http://www.violence.de/tv/rockabye.html

It is well known that early life experiences have a profound effect upon brain-behavioral development, which has been demonstrated from a rich variety of both animal and human studies. The studies of Salk, et al (1985) found prenatal and perinatal stress factors in 81% of teen suicides and the Jacobson group in Sweden (Jacobson, et al, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1998/2000) found increased risks for homicide, suicide and drug addictions in adulthood-- as a consequence of obstetrical medication (and other perinatal traumas)-which were as high as 500% compared to control groups with no obstetrical medications. These studies illustrate how critical early life experiences effect life-long developmental consequences upon the brain and behavior and that true prevention must begin before birth and during the formative postnatal periods of brain-behavioral development.

NICHD Studies Document Impaired Brain Development With Loss of Mother Love
When Dr. Prescott joined the newly formed National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), NIH he formed the Developmental Behavioral Biology Program and became its Health Scientist Administrator from 1966-1980. A major focus of this NICHD research program was to understand why depression and violence results from maternal-infant/child separations. Caspar Weinberger, then Secretary of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare-DHEW (renamed the Department of Health and Human Services-DHHS), directed the NICHD to expand its studies to uncover the origins of child abuse and neglect and of violence in the home.

As a developmental neuropsychologist and cross-cultural psychologist, Dr. Prescott focused the NICHD program efforts on developing research programs to understand how loss of early maternal-infant bonding-- as sensory deprivation of somatic maternal love and nurturing-- affects the developing primate brain that could account for the pathologies of depression and violence that results from such early separations.

In a number of NICHD supported studies with other scientists, a number and variety of developmental brain disorders were found in pathologically violent adult mother deprived monkeys who had a history of depression and psychotic behaviors. Dr. Prescott formulated the S-SAD (SomatoSensory Affectional Deprivation) theory of brain function that could account for these emotional-social behavioral disorders which included the limbic-fronto-cerebellar complex in mediating peaceful and violent behaviors. A number of studies have confirmed the validity of this theory. See http://www.violence.de

In a series of NICHD supported cross-cultural studies, Dr. Prescott found that he could predict with 80% accuracy the peaceful or homicidal violent nature of 49 tribal cultures from a single measure of bonding in the mother-infant relationship, namely, carrying of the infant throughout the day on the body of mother/allomother through the first year of life. The peaceful or violent nature of the remaining ten cultures could be accurately predicted from whether the culture permitted or punished youth sexual affectional relationships. In brief, these two variables of physical affectional bonding could predict with 100% accuracy the peaceful or violent nature of these 49 tribal cultures distributed throughout the world (Prescott, 1975,1979,1996). Crocker and Crocker (1994) have provided a detailed analysis of the vanishing matrilineal Canela tribe of the Brazil Amazon that dramatizes the relationship of high infant/child nurturance and support of youth and adult sexual affectional expression with non-violence.

In a series of subsequent cross-cultural tribal studies, Dr. Prescott found that 77% of 26 tribal cultures whose weaning age was 2.5 years or longer were rated low or absent in suicidal violence. Further, he found significant differences in suicidal behaviors between cultures with weaning age of 2.0 years or less v 2.5 years or greater. This finding suggests that a critical period of brain development exists at this age to mediate this effect. These and other data suggest that breastfeeding for 2.5 years or longer is required to optimize the health benefits of breastfeeding for child and mother (Zheng, 2000). These breastfeeding effects are undoubtedly mediated, in large part, by the rich presence of the amino acid tryptophan in breastmilk that is deficient in infant formula milk and which is necessary for normal brain serotonin development. See Table 2. Deficits in brain serotonin are well recognized as a brain condition that mediates depression, impulse dyscontrol and the violence of suicide and homicide (Prescott, 1996,1997, 2001). 
See: http://www.violence.de/prescott/ttf/article.html
http://www.violence.de/coleman/article.html
http://www.ttfuture.org/pdf/Prescott-ALD.PDF

This issue of duration of breastfeeding for optimal biological and mental-social health is particularly urgent when it is recognized that only 6.8% of American mothers are breastfeeding at 12 months; 2.7% are breastfeeding at 24months; and only 1% at 30 months or more (Hediger, 2001; Prescott, 2001). These statistics on breastfeeding become even more alarming in the light of child and youth suicidal deaths which have doubled in the 5-14 year age group over this past generation and has been the third leading cause of death in the 15-24 year age group over this past generation. Further, for the 5-14 year age group the ratio of suicide rates to homicide rates have consistently increased over this past generation, as follows: 1979--36 %; 1994--60%; 1998--73%. It is also a sobering statistic to note that more children and youth (5-24 year age group) have died from suicidal death in the past ten years (est 55,000) than combat lives lost during the ten year Vietnam War (47, 355). Yet, no memorial has been established for these children of suicidal death.

It should be noted that the American Academy of Pediatrics in its 1997 revision of its breastfeeding recommendations did not acknowledge the research studies that confirmed tryptophan deficits in infant formula milk which compromises normal brain development and places infants/children at high risk for the development of depression, impulse dyscontrol, drug abuse and suicidal/ homicidal violence. Further and inexplicably, the AAP did not affirm the recommendations of WHO and UNICEF that breastfeeding should be for "two years of age or beyond" (AAP, 1997; WHO/UNICEF, 1990). What does WHO and UNICEF know that the AAP does not know?

These data demand studies to evaluate the harmful effects of infant formula milk upon brain development and behavior compared to breastfeeding for "two years of age or beyond" and to evaluate the history of duration of breastfeeding in child and youth suicides and those with a history of depression and psychiatric medication. The NIH, inexplicably, refuses to conduct these studies.

NICHD Early Child Day Care Study
The report of the NICHD (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development) Study of Early Child Care (SECC) found that infants and very young children who spend more than 30 hours a week in child care "are far more demanding, more noncompliant, and they are more aggressive" and "They scored higher on things like gets in lots of fights, cruelty, bullying, meanness as well as talking too much, demands must be met immediately", according to Dr.Belsky, one of the principle investigators" (Stolberg, New York Times, April 19, 2001) (emphasis mine)

Dr. Sarah Friedman, NICHD Scientific Project Officer was reported as saying ""We cannot and should not hide the findings but I don't want to create a mass hysteria when I don't know what explains these results" (Stolberg, 2001). Unfortunately, no measures of biological stress disorders were incorporated into this study nor was there any awareness of the early NICHD studies in the 1960s and 1970s, which documented these behaviors in the maternally deprived young.

It has yet to be recognized that cruelty, bullying and meanness that terrorizes so many of our children and youth in our elementary schools and high schools have their roots in the emotional trauma of mother-infant/child separations associated with institutionalized day care and from other separations These collective emotional-social traumas are sufficiently great to establish an unstable brain that combined with other stress experiences compels many students to despair and the violent acts of homicide and suicide. It is estimated that some 20% of our nation's students have contemplated suicide at one time or another (Moran, 2000; Silverman, et al 200l; Prescott, 2001). What is wrong with America and American families that drive so many of our youth to depression, despair and suicide?

Belsky (2001), a member of the research team of the NICHD-SECC, has published his most recent findings and conclusions regarding the damaging emotional-social effects of infant and early child day care.

Evidence indicating that early, extensive, and continuous nonmaternal care is associated with less harmonious parent-child relations and elevated levels of aggression and noncompliance suggest that concerns raised about early and extensive child care 15 years ago remain valid and that alternative explanations of Belsky's originally-controversial conclusion do not account for seemingly adverse effects of routine nonmaternal care that continue to be reported in the literature. (Abstract)… Ultimately, hard headed work is called for to gain insight into the developmental mechanisms that give rise to the aggressive and noncompliant behavior so often found to be related to early, extensive, and continuous nonmaternal child care. For sure the road does not end with the NICHD-SECC (p.35, ms, emphasis mine).

Unfortunately, the road that gained insight into the developmental mechanisms that mediate the aggressive, noncompliant and other disordered emotional-social behaviors, e.g. depression and suicide consequent to mother-infant/child separations-- which was illuminated by the Time Life documentary "Rock a Bye Baby"-- was blocked and terminated by the NICHD in the late 1970s. The NICHD unlawfully abandoned its agency responsibility to continue to support research on the causes and consequences of violence against children and failed to recommend implementation of national health programs for the prevention of this violence. These unlawful NICHD/NIH actions has not only set-back scientific advances in this field for over a quarter of a century but more importantly has resulted in the epidemics of depression, drug abuse, psychiatric medications and violence that characterizes this nation today with a substantial loss of child and youth life due to suicidal and homicidal deaths that are mostly preventable. 
See http://www.violence.de/history/coverup.html

Past Is Prologue--Report to the President. 1970 White House Conference on Children
Never has this White House Conference come at a time of greater national questioning…The Conference can and will define problems, seek new knowledge, evaluate past successes and failures, and outline alternative courses of action.
                                                                     President Richard M. Nixon, December 5, 1969

Minority Report of Forum 15. Chairman, Urie Bronfenbrenner.

I take issue with the accompanying document on two major counts.
First, the report, in my judgement fails to convey the urgency and severity of the problem confronting the nation's families and their children. Second, the document underestimates and consequently fails to alert the reader to the critical role played by business and industry--both private and public--in determining the life style of the American family and the manner in which parent and children are treated in American society. I shall speak to each of these points in turn….(and) America's families, and their children, are in trouble, trouble so deep and pervasive as to threaten the future of our nation. The source of the trouble is nothing less than a national neglect of children and those primarily engaged in their care--America's parents. (and) The Editorial Committee objected to this statement on the grounds that it applied only to a minority of the nation's children and that, therefore, no note of urgency was justified. I strongly disagree (p. 252) (Hess, 1970)

It is transparent that the 1970 White House Conference on Children was a failure, as the prescient words of Professor Urie Bronfenbrenner attest. The children, youth and families of America are worse off today-- by any health statistic-- than they were in 1970-over thirty years ago. This massive failure of America can be laid at the doorsteps of the Congress and its political parties; The White House; the National Institutes of Health and the Department of Health and Human Services, which over this past generation have failed to support mothers being nurturing mothers and which continues to this day. America has truly lost it's dream of "…Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness". The disintegration of America from within is well on its way.

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
The realization of peaceful and harmonious behaviors at the individual and cultural level can only be obtained with a neurointegrative brain and not with a neurodissociative brain. These two brains are formed through the developmental sensory processes of pleasure stimulation or pleasure deprivation that is mediated first through the mother-infant/child pleasure bonding relationship or its absence. Sexual affectional bonding relationships during puberty/postpubertal development builds upon this first foundation of love in the mother-infant/child relationship that also promotes peaceful, harmonious and egalitarian relationships. Integrated pleasure but not dissociative pleasure inhibits depression and violence. Dissociative pleasure leads to sexual exploitation and violence, particularly child and teen sexual abuse. It would be a rare event to find any rapist or other sex offender, murderer or drug addict that has been breast fed for 2.5 years or longer in any culture and who have realized youth sexual affectional relationships.

A radical transformation is needed of the philosophical dualistic and theistic theologies of "Western Civilization" that have mandated and supported gender inequality with the subversion and violation of millions of years of mammalian evolutionary biology concerning the role of pain and pleasure in mammalian relationships, particularly human primate relationships.

The four primary life changes that are required to transform the individual and culture from one of authoritarianism and violence to one of egalitarian and peaceful relationships are:

1. Society must support mothers being nurturing mothers that includes breastfeeding for 2.5 years or greater.

2. Society must support mothers (and fathers) in being nurturing parents by supporting the continuous carrying of the infant on the body of mother/father throughout the day during the first year of life.

3. All forms of intentional infliction of physical/emotional pain and punishment must be eliminated from the life of the infant/child that begins in many infants with circumcision.

4. Society must support the emerging sexuality of children and youth and support them in the natural expression of their inherent sexuality that is free from exploitation and punishment.

Implementation of the Ten Principles would provide a greater comprehensive structure for the assurance of peaceful individuals and cultures (Table 1). In light of the above and other evidence, it is difficult to comprehend that maternal-infant bonding is considered a fiction (Eyre, 1992) and that mother nurture is of lesser importance than peer groups for child and human development (Harris, 1998).

It is with some alarm to note than none of the above NICHD/NIH history of research studies and scientific breakthroughs made in the 1960s and 197Os have been referenced in the report of the National Research Council, Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development (Shonkoff and Phillips, 2000). See also http://www.violence.de/prescott/report/part1.html (Prescott, 1993) nor in the "Report of the Panel on NIH Research on Antisocial, Aggressive, and Violence-Related Behaviors and their Consequences", Panel Meetings in June and September 1993, published April 1994 at http://www.violence.de/history/coverup.html

It is inexplicable that the scientific reports from the offices of the DHHS Surgeon General; National Institute of Mental Health; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; and National Academy of Sciences are silent on this rich NICHD developmental scientific data that are relevant to the prevention of the brain-behavioral disorders induced by child abuse and neglect (S-SAD) and which contribute to later suicidal and homicidal behaviors. (NIH, 1994; Overpeck, et al, 1998; Surgeon General Satcher, 1999ab, 2000; NRC, 1993ab).

Further, it is again emphasized that the failure of the American Academy of Pediatrics to note in its revised statement on breastfeeding (AAP, 1997) the many studies that document deficiencies of the essential amino acid tryptophan in infant formula milk that compromises normal brain serotonin development and which induces depression, impulse dyscontrol and violence is also inexplicable (Prescott, 1996, 2001). 
See Table 2 and http://www.violence.de/prescott/ttf/article.html

It is also extremely doubtful, given the documented deficiencies of tryptophan in infant formula milk, that such a commercial preparation meets the magnitude of requirements of the other essential amino acids for infants that have been established by WHO. Table 2 lists the infant requirements for the essential amino acids compared to adult requirements (Merck Manual 1987). The damaging effects of such nutritional deficiencies in infant formula milk upon the developing brain, specifically brain neurotransmitters, have yet to be evaluated. The recent authorization by the FDA to provide the nutritional additives of two fatty acids, DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid) and AA (Arachidonic Acid)-essential nutrients for brain development-to infant formula milk attests to the additional recognition that infant formula milk is malnutrition for normal brain development (Cunnane, et.at, 2000; Brody, 2001).

Clearly, life has deteriorated for America's children and youth since the 1970 White House Conference on Children. A radical reconstruction of American Society is needed that must give support to mothers being nurturing mothers which includes support of breastfeeding for 2.5 years or longer that is in accordance with the recommendations of WHO and UNICEF. Duration of breastfeeding for 2.5 years or greater appears to be necessary to optimize brain development and the health benefits of breastfeeding, if a life path of depression, alienation, drug abuse and the violence of suicidal and homicidal deaths of our children and youth are to be significantly reduced and prevented.

It is imperative that national legislation, which interferes with mother-infant/child bonding, is abolished and those nursing mothers are exempt from the 1996 Welfare Reform Act which prevents breastfeeding and bonding between mother and infant/child. Infant and early institutional child day care should be abolished where the public funds utilized to support these commercial enterprises are used to support mothers being nurturing mothers.

The greatest terror a child can have is that he is not loved, and rejection is the hell he fears. I think everyone in the world to a large or small extent has felt rejection. And with rejection comes anger, and with anger some kind of crime in revenge for the rejection, and with the crime guilt--and there is the story of mankind.
                                                                                     John, Steinbeck--East of Eden, 1952

THE CHILD IS THE FATHER OF THE MAN
THE CHILD IS THE MOTHER OF CULTURE
THE CHILD IS THE FUTURE OF HUMANITY

TABLE 2
ESTIMATED DAILY REQUIREMENTS (MG/KG) OF THE ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS 
FOR INFANT, CHILD AND ADULT

FROM: The Merck Manual. Nutritional and Metabolic Disorders. P. 920. Fifteenth Edition.1987. Merck & Co., Inc. Rathway, NJ Infant percent value of adult requirements were calculated and added to Table.

Modified from Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Ad Hoc Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series No. 724. Copyright 1985 by FAO AND WHO

Fazzolari-Nesci, A., Domianello, D., Sotera, V. and Raiha, N.C. (1992). Tryptophan fortification
     of adapted formula increases plasma tryptophan concentrations to levels not different from
     those found in breast-fed infants. J. Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. May. 14(4):
     456-459.

Hanning, R.M., Paes, B., Atkinson, S.A. (1992). Protein metabolism and growth of term infants
     in response to a reduced-protein, 40:60 whey: casein formula with added tryptophan. 
    Amer. J. Clinical Nutrition. December 56(6):1004-11.

Kamimura, S., Eguchi, K., Sekiba, K. (1991). Tryptophan and its metabolite concentrations in
     human plasma and breast milk during the perinatal period. Acta Medica Okayama. 
    April 45(2):101-106.

Lanting, D.I., Fidler, V. Huisman, M., Touwen, B.C., Boersma, E.R. (1994). Neurological
     differences between 9-year old children fed breast-milk or formula-milk as babies. (1994).
     Lancet. Nov 12 344(8933):1319-22.

Neuringer, M. (1993). Cerebral cortex docosahexaenoic acid is lower in formula-fed than in
     breast-fed infants. Nutrition Reviews. August 51(8):238-41.

Newman, J. (1995). How Breast Milk Protects Newborns. Scientific American. December.

Selected References

AAP (1997). Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk (RE9729) Pediatrics 100(6).
     December. http://www.aap.org/policy/re9729.html

Belsky, J. (2002). Developmental Risks (Still) Associated with Early Child Care. J. 
    Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 42: 845-860.

Bowlby, J. (1953). Child Care and the Growth of Love. Pelican/Penguin. Baltimore/London.

Brody, J.E. (2001). A Human Touch Is Added to Infant Formulas. The New York Times. July 17.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1970). Report to the President. The 1970 White House Conference on
     Children. (Stephen Hess, National Chairman). U.S. Superintendent of Documents.
     Washington, DC.

Cook, P.S. (1996). Early Child Care: Infants & Nations At Risk. News Weekly Books Melbourne

Crocker, W. and Crocker, J. (1994). The Canela: Bonding Through Kinship, Ritual, and Sex.
      New York: Harcourt Brace College.

Cunnane. S. C., Francescuttie. V., Brenna, J.T. and Cvrawford, M. A. (2000). Breast-Fed Infants
     Achieve a Higher Rate of Brain and Whole Body Docosahexenoate Accumulation Than
     Formula-Fed Infants Not Consuming Dietary Docosahexaenoate. Lipids 35(1) 105-111.

De Waal, F. and Lanting, F. (1997). Bonobo. The Forgotten Ape. University of California Press.
     Berkeley

Dokecki, P.R. (1973). When the bough breaks...what will happen to baby. Review of: 
     Rock-a- bye Baby. Time Life Films (Lothar Wolff, Ex. Prod.) Contemporary Psychology.
     18:64

Eyer, D.E. (1992). Mother-Infant Bonding. A Scientific Fiction. Yale University Press. 
  New Haven.

Faro,. M.D. and Windle, W.F. (1969). Transneuronal Degeneration in Brains of Monkeys
     Asphyxiated at Birth. Experimental Neurology. 24:38-53.

Fazzolari-Nesci, A., Domianello, D., Sotera, V. and Raiha, N.C. (1992). Tryptophan fortification
     of adapted formula increases plasma tryptophan concentrations to levels not different from
     those found in breast-fed infants. J. Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. May. 14(4):
     456-459.

Ferber, R. (1985). Solve Your Child's Sleep Problems. Simon and Schuster. New York.

Gibbon, E. (1776-1788). The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire. Vol 1. Modern Library
     Edition (1995). Random House. New York.

Hanning, R.M., Paes, B., Atkinson, S.A. (1992). Protein metabolism and growth of term infants
     in response to a reduced-protein, 40:60 whey: casein formula with added tryptophan. 
     Amer. J. Clinical Nutrition. December 56(6):1004-11.

Harris, J.R. (1998). The Nurture Assumption. The Free Press. New York

Heath, R. G. (l975): Maternal-social deprivation and abnormal brain development: Disorders
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Hediger, M (2001). Personal Communication. National Health and Nutrition Examination
     Survey (NHANES 111) National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
     Bethesda, MD.

Hess, S. (1970). Report to the President. White House Conference on Children.
     Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, DC

Holt, L.E. (1935). The Care and Feeding of Children (15th ed) Appleton-Century: New York.

Hrdy, S.B. (1999). Mother Nature. A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection.
     Pantheon Books. New York

Jacobson, B., Eklund, G., Hamberger, L., Linnarsson, D., Sedvall, G., and Valverius, M. (l987)
     Perinatal origin of adult self-destructive behavior. Acta Psych. Scandinavia, 76:364-371

Jacobson, B., Nyberg, K., Eklund, G., Bygdeman, M., and Rydberg, U. (1988). Obstetric Pain
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